The early Soomra rulers were `Fatmid' Ismailis
Soomra DYNASTY (1011- 1351 AD)
The Soomras originally were a local Hindu tribe. Some influential
members of it had accepted Islam soon after the Arab conquest of
Sindh. Even after conversion they retained their old Hindu names and
customs. They had intermarried with local Arab landowners and thus
had acquired great influence and power.
They were not Qarmatis. Muqtana of Syria had been inviting Shaikh Ibn
Soomar Raja Bal of Multan to accept Druzism. It is, therefore,
apparent that they belonged to the Ismaili sect organised by the
Fatmid Khalifas of Egypt, Imam Zahir and Mustansir. The Qarmati
descendent movement or the early Ismaili sect had never gained ground
in Sindh, but somehow most of the early Sunni writers considered
Ismailis as Qarmatis. The Soomras practised a lot of Hindu customs
even until 1471 AD when Mahmud Begra tried to suppress them and
convert them to his sect of Islam i.e., Sunnism. Raja Bal or Rajpal
could have been son of Soomar Soomro who ruled Sindh at that time.
The early Soomra rulers were `Fatmid' Ismailis, owed allegiance to
Fatmid Khalifas of Cairo, sent them presents and read their names in
the Friday Khutba. On the death of Imam Mustansir at Cairo in 487 AH
(1094 AD), the Fatmid Dawa had been divided in two sections. The
first one Mustalian Dawa with headquarters at Yemen in the beginning
and later on in Gujarat; the other one called Nizari Ismaili Dawa
with headquarters at Almut in Persia under Hasan bin Sabbah and
supported the cause of Imam Nizar bin Mustansir and his descendants.
The Soomras drifted away from these two rival Dawas. Ismailis got
great setback between 1171-1187 AD starting with the fall of their
Khilafat in Cairo at the hands of Sultan Salahuddin Ayubi, then in
Iraq at the hands of Seljuki Turks and in Multan by Muhammad Ghori's
campaigns.
Yemeni or Gujarati Dawa exercised heavy Arab influence, which is
apparent in the names of people as well as Arabic literature. The
Soomras in general had local Sindhi names and therefore they could
not have originally belonged to this sect of Ismailis. The Ismailis
of Gujarat, who attached themselves to Yemeni or Gujarati Dawa, are
known as Bohris.
The Nizari school, was active in the northern subcontinent. Pir Shams
Sabzwari, looking like a Jogi, came to Multan where he drew
considerable followings. He may have been active in Sindh, but as he
came during the time of Imam Qasim Shah (1310-1369 AD) in the last
days of the Soomra rule, it becomes doubtful if they could be Nizari
Ismailis too. Pir Sadruddin, who died near Uch in 876 AH (1471 AD),
was also a Nizari missionary and there is evidence that he exercised
influence in Sindh. Nizaris got a setback in Iraq when Halaku's
forces in the mid-thirteenth century destroyed their stronghold in
Alburz Mountains.
Mir Masum basing on hearsay considers the Soomras of Hindu origin.
Tarikh-i-Tahiri clearly mentions that the Soomras were of Hindu
origin, but all the same they ate buffalo meat. Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh
of Muhammad Yousuf agrees with Masumi and gives some additional names
of their rulers of whom some appear to be Muslim names. Tarikh-i-
Tabaqat-i-Bahadur-Shahi, written around 1532-1536 AD, states that
they were descendants of Tamim Ansari. This is also a mis-statement.
Recently it is argued that they were Sumerians, who came from Iraq
and were of Arab stock. This was the twentieth-century theory unknown
to the past historians. Presence of Soomras in Kutch, Gujarat and
Rajasthan in small numbers does not make them Rajputs either, as
Soomra and Samma clans had formed ninety per cent of population of
Sindh from eleventh to sixteenth centuries.
Tuhfa-tul-Kiram and Beglar Namah have called Soomras as Arabs and
perhaps connected them with Sumerians of Iraq without realising that
Sumerians were not Semites. After the conquest of India by Mughals,
the definition of a Mughal was: a foreigner from the central Asia or
Iran, fair in colour, not knowing local language and not having a
local wife. All local Muslims were discriminated against and
exploited like non-Muslims. Many Sindhi tribes started showing their
origin from outside. Soomras became Sumerians, Sammas descendants of
Jamshed of Persia and Kalhoras as offsprings of Abbasid Khalifas, in
a similar way as earlier Rais of Rai dynasty the local Sudras or
untouchables, had become Rajputs. In the fifth century, Huns
destroyed most of the kingdoms in South Asia. Warlike tribes
collected mercenaries in the Indian desert area and called themselves
Rajputs or sons of Rajas. They included many tribes of Sindh, Kutch,
Kathiawar, Gujarat, Punjab and Utter Pradesh, who actually settled in
areas bordering the desert. They called themselves Rajputs or sons of
Rajas and Khatri by occupation having a dint to fight wars and rule.
There has been no migration of these tribes to the surrounding areas
of Rajasthan as is generally thought. Rajasthan with limited
resources is thinly populated. The tribes were present in the above
areas in large numbers and only a few in the desert. They lived on
animal husbandry as their ancestors did and also small-scale
agriculture in the desert. All warriors and feudals called themselves
Rajputs all over South Asia. Sammas and Soomras were local tribes and
assigned themselves as Rajputs by class because of presence of a few
of their tribesmen in the adjoining desert of Rajasthan. Later on the
Rajputs of Rajasthan built their own genealogies, descent, folklore
and history, which was collected by Todd between 1815-1829 AD. This
is not history but only narration of mostly fictitious perceptions.
No serious historian accepts it. All British period historians given
in the table at end of this chapter have called Soomras as Rajputs
under influence of Todd's writings. Actually they were local
converted to Ismailism.
The Soomra dynasty started with a definite and rigid law of
succession unlike the contemporary Ghazni and Delhi Sultanates, which
always faced trouble and where sword and murder was the natural
method of deciding the right of succession. The Soomra rule therefore
continued uninterrupted for about three-and-a-half centuries and
their territories were never annexed, though they acted as the
vassals of Delhi for some time.
The method of governance like contemporary Delhi Sultanate was not
hereditary feudal nobility copied from Sassanians, but Bhayat or
brotherhood under which villages were allotted land for maintenance
and Panchats for setting law and order problems and maintenance of
land, water and grazing grounds. Panchats provided taxes to the
government. Such a system, operated in Kutch from 1148 to 1948 AD
under Hindu Jareja Sammas of Sindh, which had survived up to the mid-
twentieth century and was a good example of governance. State was
neither run through Jagirdari system nor were high officials granted
fiefs to exploit land for a limited period.
After nearly two hundred years of rule, Soomras, under the influence
of Sufis gave Jagirs to holy foundations to maintain Dargahs and
undertake moral teachings, but these Khanqahs and Dargahs of Sufis
had been encouraged to subdue common man through them. The Soomra
government did not follow a military theocratic despotism as was done
by the Delhi Sultanate.
The participation of Hindus with Muslim Sammas in wars and political
struggles show that religion did not play any part in state affairs,
which then was secular and unorthodox. There is no record that
Soomras ever invited Persian poets, historians and scholars to their
courts or main towns. There was no important caste of Sayeds in Sindh
during Soomra rule besides some Sufis. Most of Sayed families of
Sindh claim their origin from the central Asia in the fifteenth
century when dry climate in these areas had forced them to migrate.
Sammas, the new converts, welcomed them as pillars of Islam and
bestowed favours on them, but except a few Sufis, there is no record
of Sayeds' presence in Sindh in Soomra or early Samma era.
The Soomra monarchy was based on highly esteemed public opinion. Even
the first Soomro king, Khafif ascended the throne with the full
mandate of the people. When he died his son was a child. The Soomra
capital city Mansura was burnt by Mahmud of Ghazni. Soomra elders
collected at Tharri, the new capital of the Soomras and unanimously
elected Soomar Soomro as their king, but the right of the minor son
of Khafif remained reserved. Soomar died in 1054-55 AD and Khafif's
son Bhoongar succeeded him. Soomar's son Raja Bal (Rajpal)
established himself in Multan. He proved to be a very strong king.
Even Muqtana of Syria addressed him in his letter in 1033 AD
as `Power of the state', son of Soomar and not by his actual name. It
is not sure whether Raja Bal accepted suzerainty of Sindh or ruled
independently. These incidents show that right of succession was
never usurped in Soomra rule.
Dodo-Chanesar ballads; HISTORY or myth
Soomras' capitals
The following four are recorded as capitals of Soomras:
(i) Mansura or Brahmanabad from 1011 to 1026 AD, when it was
burnt and not re-occupied.
(ii) Tharri, 14km eastwards of Matli on the Puran from 1026 to
between 1241 and 1256 AD, which was abandoned due to changes in the
course of Puran.
(iii) Mahatam Tur or Muhammad Tur or Shah Kapoor, sixteen
kilometres south of Mirpur Bathoro and eight kilometres north of Jati
on the Gungro branch between 1241 and 1246, and during 1317-1320 AD.
(iv) Thatta from about 1317 to 1320 AD until the end of their
rule in 1351 AD.
.
Compiled by: Mohd. Umer Soomro
http://www.soomra.org.pk/History/history.html
SOOMRA DYNASTY (1011- 1351 AD)
BOOK REVIEW
An Illustrated Historical Atlas of Soomra Kingdom of Sindh (1011-1351 AD.
By Muhammad Hussain Panhwar, 2003
This impressive volume on the Soomra Kingdom of Sindh is one of the most
comprehensive studies undertaken on this important phase of cultural and
political development in the northwestern subcontinent. M. H. Panhwar
has done an excellent job of pulling together diverse sources and
searching out obscure cultural and historical details. He has also
compiled one of the most exhaustive collections of detailed maps from
all historical periods. The numerous good quality photographs and
drawings of architecture, plants, animals, people and many aspects of
culture provide the reader with independent sources of information in
addition to the explanatory text. The wide array of subject matter is
highly commendable as many scholars overlook the key elements in
cultural development, such as food, ornament, language and education.
The author provides numerous original and highly insightful
interpretations on the subjects of geography, movements of people,
political developments and the symbolic meaning of various aspects of
material culture. Perhaps the most refreshing feature of this book is
the presentation of new data and new interpretations. Even though all
scholars may not support some of the interpretations, the author has
provided information that will allow the reader to come to their own
decision about specific issues. This book has been written in such a
manner that it is accessible to younger children who may not have all of
the academic training of scholars. At the same time the author has
included vast amounts of data that will be useful to the specialized
reader. Finally, this volume fills a critical need for scholars and
students wishing to study a poorly understood period of history and a
vast array of material culture that will soon be lost in the face of
modernization. My special congratulations to the author for providing
the world this treasure of Sindhi culture.
(3)
Zamir Niazi
Daily DAWN Karachi, September 07, 2003
Glimpses of Sindh
An Illustrated Historical Atlas of Soomra Kingdom of Sindh
By M.H. Panhwar
For the first time, man walked on this planet about 3 million years
ago. But the span of the recorded history is only about 6,000 years
old. The invention of writing made all the difference. It is no
coincidence that all the great civilizations got their birth in a few
river valleys – Egyptian on the banks of the Nile; Mesopotamian on the
Tigris and the Euphrates; Indian along the Indus (Moenjo-Daro) and the
Ganges; and Chinese expands from the region of the Wei and Hwang Ho
rivers.
All these civilizations luckily flourished in our part of the world that
is the East or the great continent of Asia. The rest of over a dozen
later civilizations are all indebted to the East. The book under review
by M. H. Panhwar deals with the great Indus civilization which,
according to 1924 discoveries, was at its height when Cheops in Egypt
was building his first pyramid. Providing evidence of highly developed
city life and bronze culture, according to the author of “Civilization
Past and Present”, T. Walter Wallbank and Alastair M. Taylor, “perhaps
Moenjo-Daro is the oldest civilization yet discovered. Whenever this
soil is thoroughly dug up as it has the soil of Egypt, it may uncover
civilizations (Indus and Ganges) much older than these which were
flourished along the Nile.”
The need for such a long introduction arose because the title of the
book is rather inappropriate. Though it gives a bird eye-view of the
history of the Soomra dynasty (1011-1351) is perhaps the shortest
history (rather glimpses) of the entire Indus civilization. Illahi
Bukhsh Soomro, admits in his forward, that “this book, as presented, is
much beyond the history of Soomras.”
One of the many reasons for giving sketchy coverage of the Soomras by
the writer is lack of material for which he has rightly blamed the
official attitude. Panhwar writes: “Pakistan government’s archaeologists
have long been looking for Islamic period, that means only the Arabs,
Delhi Sultans and Mughal monuments. To them … Soomra-Samma dynasties
are second rate Islamic era and therefore not even worth mentioning.
Brahminabad-Mansura city was the capital of Soomras when looted and
burned by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1025/26….evidence of large-scale massacres
of city has been established….” To prove his contention the learned
author has quoted Syed Suleman Nadvi’s lectures on Indo –Arab relations
delivered in Allahabad in March 1929, later published in a book form.
In over 250 pages, the author has encapsulated in 28 chapters, 70 maps,
21 charts and attractive illustrations covering 5000 years of colourful
history of not only the rulers, their friends and foes, victories and
defeats only.
In the introduction, Panhwar writes “my definition of history is that
it is the history of production, control over means of production,
distribution, irrigation system, climate and environments.” In short,
his emphasis is on economic, financial, social, cultural and religious
evolution in the Indus Valley spread over two-and a half millennium.
To justify the title, the author has given adequate coverage to the
Soomra Dynasty. Denying the claim made by several earlier historians
that the Soomars were, in fact, Sumerians, who came from Iraq
(Mesopotamia) and were of the Arab origin.
According to Panhwar, “the Soomras originally were a local Hindu tribe.
Some influential members of it had accepted Islam soon after the Arab
conquest of Sindh.”
During the Mughal rule, he further writes, “all local Muslims were
discriminated against and exploited like non-Muslims. Many Sindhi tribes
started showing their origin from outside. Soomras became Sumerians,
Sammas descendants of Jamshed of Persia and Kalhoras as offsprings of
Abbasid…”
Surprisingly, the writer is neither a historian, nor an anthropologist
or archaeologist. Basically he holds degrees in three allied fields of
mechanical electrical and agricultural engineering. For nearly 16 years
(1953-69), Panhwar had worked in different capacities in Sindh and
Baluchistan and enriched their soil by providing better farming methods
and improved irrigation system.
Simultaneously he wrote ten books on ground water, its occurrence,
development and conservation. He has established a horticulture research
farm near Hyderabad. There he has successfully produced 25 new fruit
crops, out of which 12 are commercially grown.
He and his wife are voracious readers and have unique collection of
nearly 25000 books, a majority of them on various aspects of Sindh. Of
his writings on Sindh, “Sources Material on Sindh” and “Chronological
Dictionary of Sindh” are referred as standard classic. The second
addition of his another book, “Six thousand years of irrigation in
Sindh, is in press.
The beautifully produced book is a chronology of events, dynastic lists,
including charts and a selection of maps is a valuable addition to a few
books on Sindhology. The author needs all the praise for the painful
and hard work.
CONTENTS
TEXT
* Foreword by Illahi Bukhsh Soomro P.11
* Preface by M. Umer Soomro P.13
Chapter 1 Introduction P.19
Chapter 2 Rulers of Soomra dynasty P.31
Chapter 3 Soomras as independent rulers of Sindh P.33
Chapter 4 Early Arab maps of Sindh (900-1000 AD) P.39
Chapter 5 Independent Islamic states and neighbouring
non-Muslim states (998 AD) before Soomras’ rise
to power P.45
Chapter 6 Did the empire of Mahmud of Ghazni include
Sindh? P.47
Chapter 7 Contemporaries of early Soomras in the Muslim World
and India (1011-1206 AD) P.57
Chapter 8 Sindh-Delhi Sultanate relations (1206-1333 AD) P.63
Chapter 9 Sindh-Multan relations P.67
Chapter 10 Mongol empire and Sindh(1221-1351 AD) P.71
Chapter 11 Brahui migration to Sindh and exodus of gypsies P.77
Chapter 12 Ibn Battutta’s visit to Sindh (1333 AD) P.81
Chapter 13 Invasion of Sindh by Muhammad Tughlaq P.87
Chapter 14 Historical geography of Sindh during Soomra
period P.91
Chapter 15 Behaviour of the Indus and its consequences
during Soomra rule P.113
Chapter 16 Irrigation and agriculture under Soomras P.121
Chapter 17 Administration P.133
Chapter 18 Human food during Soomra era P.139
Chapter 19 Trade under Soomras (1000-1400 AD) P.147
Chapter 20 Social life during Soomra period P.155
Chapter 21 Education under Soomras P.171
Chapter 22 Religion and mysticism during Soomra rule P.175
Chapter 23 Arts, crafts, archaeology and architectural
techniques P.201
Chapter 24 Languages of the South Asia P.215
Chapter 25 Development of Sindhi as official language during
Soomra rule P.221
Chapter 26 Language, literature and literary contacts with
outer world during Soomra rule P.225
Chapter 27 Science and technology P.233
Chapter 28 Human races of South Asia P.237
Bibliography P.238
Index P.242
Acknowledgments P.247
About the author P.248
MAPS
Map1 Location map of Sindh P.6
Map 2 1000-1525 AD: Soomra-Samma cities of northern Sindh P.20
Map 3 1000-1525 AD: Soomra-Samma cities of southern Sindh P.22
Map 4 854-1011 AD: Habari kingdom and adjoining local Arab
rulers in Balochistan and the southern Punjab in 951 AD P.24
Map 5 2500 BC-Present Times: Courses of Indus and Hakra
near Brahmanabad-Mansura P.26
Map 6 1025 AD: Khafif Soomra and contemporary South Asian
states P.30
Map 7 951 AD: Istakhri’s map of Sindh P.38
Map 8 976 AD: Ibn Haukal’s map of Sindh P.38
Map 9 Ibn Haukal’s map of the world P.38
Map 10 150 AD: Ptolemy’s map of South Asia P.40
Map 11 1154 AD: The world according to Idrisi P.42
Map 12 9th century: Beginning of the break-up of Abbasid
empire P.44
Map 13 10th century: Carmids, Karmatians, Buwahids and
Samanids P.44
Map 14 11th century: Ghaznavid empire P.44
Map 15 12th century: Seljuk’s invasions and Ghaznavids P.44
Map 16 1030 AD: Empire of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni P.46
Map 17 Mahmud of Ghazni’s route of sacking Mansura and the
early Muslim penetration in Sindh and adjoining areas P.48
Map 18 1206 AD: South Asia at the death of Shahabuddin Ghori P.56
Map 19 1150 AD: Sindh and adjoining areas according to Idrisi on
a modern map P.58
Map 20 1154 AD: Sindh and adjoining areas according to Idrisi P.58
Map 21 1236 AD: South Asia at the death of Altatmash P.62
Map 22 1220 AD: The Khawarizm Shah’s empire and dates of Mongol
raids P.62
Map 23 1287 AD: South Asia at the death of Balban P.64
Map 24 1315 AD: South Asia at the death of Allauddin P.66
Map 25 1227 AD: Chengiz Khan’s first Mongol empire P.70
Map 26 1239-1310 AD: Mongol empire and South Asia P.72
Map 27 3000 BC-1300 AD: Brahui migration to Sindh P.76
Map 28 13th-16th centuries: Principal sites of Chaukhandi
tombs in Sindh and Balochistan P.76
Map 29 1333 AD: Ibn Battutta’s route to Sindh and Multan P.80
Map 30 1894/95 AD: Nasirabad taluka and location of Junani P.82
Map 31 1335 AD: Empire of Muhammad bin Tughlaq P.84
Map 32 1351 AD: South Asia at the death of Muhammad Tughlaq P.86
Map 33 1351 AD: Taghi’s flight to Sindh and Muhammad Tughlaq’s
invasion P.88
Map 34 Soomra–Samma cities in ruins in southern Sindh P.90
Map 35 3000 BC Present Times: Course of River Indus near
Sukkur and four different gorges P.92
Map 36 Islands near Sukkur–Rohri P.92
Map 37 Sukkur and present environments P.92
Map 38 Cousen’s map of Brahmanabad-Mansura and surroundings
with identification by different authorities P.96
Map 39 Layout of Banbhore P.102
Map 40 2500 BC-Present:: The courses of Indus and Hakra
near Brahmanabad-Mansura based on aerial photographs P.102
Map 41 1226-1843 AD: Routes between Kutch and Sindh P.104
Map 42 962-993 AD: Seismic map of Pakistan P.110
Map 43 Warah, Jacobabad and Shahdadkot courses of the River Indus
in 8th - 14th centuries P.112
Map 44 Warah, Western Nara and Dadu courses of the River Indus
8th - 14th centuries P.112
Map 45 Khairpur course of the River Indus during 7th -14th
centuries P.112
Map 46 Khairpur, Sanghar, Samaro and Shahdadpur courses of the
River Indus in 7th-13th centuries P.112
Map 47 Nara, Samaro, Puran, Shahdadpur and Nasarpur courses
of the River Indus in 7th – 13th centuries P.114
Map 48 Bulri, Gungro, Golarchi and Ahmed Rajo courses of the
River Indus in lower Sindh in 10th – 14th centuries P.114
Map 49 Kalri, Baghar, Richhal and Ochto courses of the River Indus
in 10th-18th centuries P.114
Map 50 1250-1750 AD: Courses of the River Indus in southern
Sindh P.114
Map 51 1755-1758 AD: Changes in course of the River Indus P.116
Map 52 1250 AD and afterward: Frequent flood path on right bank
of the River Indus P.116
Map 53 Geomorphology of the soil in southern Sindh built by the
River Indus P.116
Map 54 Drying up of Hakra P.118
Map 55 Climatic map of Sindh, annual rainfall P.120
Map 56 Climatic map of Sindh, annual evaporation P.120
Map 57 Ground water map of Sindh P.122
Map 58 Probability of 5” rainfall in one day P.124
Map 59 Probability of 5” rainfall in five days P.124
Map 60 Probability of 5” rainfall in thirty days P.124
Map 61 Micro climatic zones of Sindh (heat and chill units) P.124
Map 62 Location of springs of Sindh P.126
Map 63 6000 BC – Present times: Migration of ducks, swans,
geese and fowls from Russia and Central Asia to
Manchar Lake based on ringing at and recovering P.138
Map 64 1025 AD: Trade routes, trade articles and trading
states P.146
Map 65 1228 AD: Trade routes and trading articles P.148
Map 66 8th – 13th centuries: Cultural, religious, commercial
and administrative centres in Sindh P.174
Map 67 Language distribution of the South Asia P.214
Map 68 1300-1650 AD: Tribal map of northern Sindh P.228
Map 69 1300-1650 AD: Tribal map of southern Sindh P.230
Map 70 Human races of the South Asia P.236
CHARTS AND TABLES
1 Various versions of origin of Soomras P.28
2 Kings of Soomra dynasty and years of their rule P.31
3 Geographical places shown in Arab maps and their
location P.43
4 Independent Muslim states in 998 AD P.45
5 Invasions of Mahmud Ghaznavi P.47
6 Muslim states contemporary of Soomras P.57
7 Contemporaries of Soomras (1011-1351/52 AD) P.60
8 Soomras and their contemporary rulers of Multan
(893-1365 AD) P.68
9 Chronology of important events relating to Mongol
conquests P.75
10 Soomra towns in southern Sindh in ruins P.94
11 Identification of Brahmandabad-Mansura and adjoining
places by various authors P.98
12 Geographical names of sea along Sindh coast P.103
13 Location of towns of Soomra period on various drainage
systems P.105
14 Genealogical table of Jareja Samma rulers of Kutch
(1148-1948 AD) P.108
15 Some springs in Sindh and cultivation on them P.131
16 Food items prices (1325-1351 AD) P.145
17 Prices of slaves in contemporary India P.169
18 Common religious centres of various communities in
Sindh since antiquity P.192
19 Glaze ores of Soomra period P.205
20 Low temperature glazes P.207
21 Basic glazes P.207
ILLUSTRATIONS
1 Level of progress in iron and glassware Fig: 1,2 P.29
2 Level of art in stone carving Fig: 3,4 P.30
3 Indus culture pottery and similarities with that of
Soomra era Fig: 5 to 7 P.32
4 Pottery from Indus culture cities (3700-1650 BC) and
parallels from Soomra era sites (1010-1351 AD)
Fig: 8 to 23 P.34
5 Clay pottery pieces found by Belasis and Cousens
from Brahmanabad-Mansura in 1854 excavations.
Subsequent pottery of Soomra (1011-1351) and Samma
(1351-1525) periods shows similar patterns and designs.
Fig: 24 to 38 P.36
6 (same) Fig: 39 to 49 P.37
7 Lids of Soomra period Fig: 50 to 57 P.41
8 Arab trader and soldiers Fig: 58,59 P.52
9 Mahmud Ghaznavi’s army Fig: 60,61 P.48
10 Clay jars mostly for storage of liquids Fig: 62 to 72 P.50
11 Clay jars, baking and cooking vessels and stands
Fig: 73 to 86 P.52
12 Tumblers, cups, stands and glazed and painted vases
Fig: 87 to 99 P.54
13 Pre-Delhi Sultanate period bird motifs on Soomra period
pottery Fig: 100 P.65
14 Allauddin’s sword Fig: 101 P.66
15 Gypsies of Sindh Fig: 102 P.69
16 End of Banbhore (Debal) Fig: 103 P.73
17 Mongol threat in Pakistan and northern India
Fig: 104 to 109 P.74
18 Mongols attacking an enemy Fig: 110 P.75
19 Chaukhandi type grave Fig: 111 P.76
20 Kings, conquerors and cavalrymen Fig: 112 to 117 P.78
21 Terracotta pottery mould Fig: 118 P.79
22 Junani inspection bungalow Fig: 119,120 P.82
23 Tughlaqs, their postal service and Ibn Battutta
Fig: 121 to 125 P.85
24 Types of construction during Soomra period
Fig: 126 to 128 P.89
25 Khawaja Khizr and Sadh Bella Fig: 129,130 P.92
26 Ivory objects, male and female figurines
Fig: 131 to 133 P.96
27 Types of construction Fig: 134 to 136 P.100
28 Decorative domestic articles of ivory, metal, stone,
palm leaves and straw Fig: 137 to 143 P.106
29 Mohenjo Daro housing compared to earlier and later
housing of Sindh Fig: 144 to 147 P.109
30 (same) Fig: 148 to 151 P.110
31 Houses of Soomra era still common in southern Sindh and
plans of Indus culture houses Fig: 152 to 156 P.111
32 Climatic optimum 900-1200 AD and climate of the past
1100 years Fig: 157 P.120
33 Agriculture operations of Soomra era continued in
twentieth century Fig: 158 to 166 P.128
34 Irrigation equipment Fig: 167 to 174 P.130
35 Irrigation Bokas Fig: 175,176 P.131
36 Visible plan of Soomra palace or administration building
at Shah Kapoor Fig: 177 P.132
37 Sketch of Khirun Kot and roads leading to Shah Kapoor and
Khirun Kot Fig: 178,179 P.134
38 Glazed pottery of Soomra period Fig: 180 to 204 P.136
39 Bhiro Bham ruins and painted pottery Fig: 205,206 P.137
40 Popular edible marine and fresh water fishes
Fig: 207 to 234 P.140
41 Popular edible fowls Fig: 235 to 256 P.142
42 Edible wild animals Fig: 257 to 272 P.144
43 Fishing and fowling Fig: 273,274 P.145
44 Coins and currency during Soomra era Fig: 275 to 282 P.150
45 Fishing, fishermen’s boat houses and fish trade
Fig: 283 to 292 P.152
46 Coins and currency continued from p.150 Fig: 293 to 295 P.153
47 Ornaments through the centuries to Soomra times
Fig: 296,297 P.154
48 Traditional ornaments worn by men and women during
Indus culture times and some continued during Soomra
rule and after (Jonathan Mark Kenoyer) Fig: 298 P.156
49 Indus civilisation patterns of tiles, ornaments, clothes
and interior decoration still used during Soomra era
Fig: 299 to 308 P.158
50 Female ornaments depicted in Chaukhandi type grave
art (14th-18th centuries) Fig: 309 to 317 P.160
51 Male and female ornaments and other ware of Soomra era
Fig: 318 to 323 P.162
52 Female ornaments depicted in grave art of 14th-18th
centuries Fig: 324 to 327 P.164
53 Neck ornaments of men and women from soomra sites
Fig: 328 to 337 P.166
54 Ornaments Fig: 338 to 345 P.168
55 Entertainment Fig: 346 to 348 P.169
56 Clothes, make-up tools and coloured ornaments
Fig: 349 to 357 P.170
57 Toys as children’s education and entertainment
Fig: 358 to 377 P.172
58 Religious postures, structures and objects
Fig: 378 to 382 P.176
59 Fig: 383 to 394 P.178
60 Fig: 395 to 399 P.180
61 Fig: 400 to 404 P.182
62 Fig: 405 to 409 P.184
63 Honouring the dead Fig: 410 to 422 P.186
64 Mosques surviving during Soomra period Fig: 423 to 426 P.188
65 Some important stupa’s designs of south and south-east
Asia Fig: 427 to 441 P.190
66 Snake worship Fig: 442 to 449 P.196
67 Music as expression of religion under Ismailism,
Sufism and Bhagti movements Fig: 450 to 461 P.198
68 (same) Fig: 462 to 469 P.199
69 Geometrical patterns for decoration on tiles and
ornaments during Soomra era Fig: 470 to 497 P.200
70 Artistic tiles and bricks of Soomra period
Fig: 498 to 502 P.202
71 Fig: 503 to 506 P.204
72 Fig: 507 to 513 P.206
73 Painted rosette pattern of Indus culture still in use
in rural Sindh Fig: 514 to 519 P.208
74 Smoking devices Fig: 520 to 532 P.210
75 Lighting Fig: 533 to 542 P.212
76 Rato Kot fort (10th-13th centuries) Fig: 543 to 550 P.213
77 Decorative ivory pieces and pieces of bangles
Fig: 551,552 P.214
78 Sindhi scripts in vogue in Soomra era Fig: 553 to 557 P.216
79 Sindhi and Arabic scripts of Soomra era Fig: 558 to 565 P.218
80 Eastern gate of Rato Kot and ruins of Alore
Fig: 566,567 P.219
81 Division of labour between man and woman in Sindhi
society during ages Fig: 568 to 572 P.220
82 Water carriers and crafts of Sindh Fig: 573 to 579 P.222
83 Bullock cart Fig: 580 P.223
84 Soomra ruined sites Fig: 581 to 588 P.224
85 Buddhist artistic tiles and bricks used in Kahujo Daro
and Sudheranjo Daro Fig: 589 to 615 P.226
86 Peacock and catapult terracotta balls Fig: 616,617 P.231
87 War and weaponry Fig: 618 to 633 P.232
88 Industrial tools Fig: 634 to 645 P.234
89 Artisans at work and their tools Fig: 646 to 650 P.235
90 Medical equipment Fig: 651 to 653 P.236
91 Flour grinding mills of medieaval Sindh Fig: 654 P.237
ABBREVIATIONS
BM Banbhore Museum, Banbhore
CDS Chronological Dictionary of Sindh
DGA Director General Archaeology
Dia Diameter
ELA Reader’s Digest “Every day Life through Ages.”
H Height
L Length
LM Lar Museum, Badin
M Maximum
MHP M.H. Panhwar, Author
NM National Museum, Karachi
OUP Oxford University Press
PEW Purnell’s Encyclopaedia of World History 1977
SM Sindh Museum, Hyderabad
SN Sindhology Museum, Jamshoro
T Thickness
TWH Times the World illustrated History
US Umer Soomro
W Width
Regards
Umer Soomro
Publisher
An Illustrated Historical Atlas of Soomra Kingdom of Sindh (1011-1351 AD.
By Muhammad Hussain Panhwar, 2003
This impressive volume on the Soomra Kingdom of Sindh is one of the most
comprehensive studies undertaken on this important phase of cultural and
political development in the northwestern subcontinent. M. H. Panhwar
has done an excellent job of pulling together diverse sources and
searching out obscure cultural and historical details. He has also
compiled one of the most exhaustive collections of detailed maps from
all historical periods. The numerous good quality photographs and
drawings of architecture, plants, animals, people and many aspects of
culture provide the reader with independent sources of information in
addition to the explanatory text. The wide array of subject matter is
highly commendable as many scholars overlook the key elements in
cultural development, such as food, ornament, language and education.
The author provides numerous original and highly insightful
interpretations on the subjects of geography, movements of people,
political developments and the symbolic meaning of various aspects of
material culture. Perhaps the most refreshing feature of this book is
the presentation of new data and new interpretations. Even though all
scholars may not support some of the interpretations, the author has
provided information that will allow the reader to come to their own
decision about specific issues. This book has been written in such a
manner that it is accessible to younger children who may not have all of
the academic training of scholars. At the same time the author has
included vast amounts of data that will be useful to the specialized
reader. Finally, this volume fills a critical need for scholars and
students wishing to study a poorly understood period of history and a
vast array of material culture that will soon be lost in the face of
modernization. My special congratulations to the author for providing
the world this treasure of Sindhi culture.
(3)
Zamir Niazi
Daily DAWN Karachi, September 07, 2003
Glimpses of Sindh
An Illustrated Historical Atlas of Soomra Kingdom of Sindh
By M.H. Panhwar
For the first time, man walked on this planet about 3 million years
ago. But the span of the recorded history is only about 6,000 years
old. The invention of writing made all the difference. It is no
coincidence that all the great civilizations got their birth in a few
river valleys – Egyptian on the banks of the Nile; Mesopotamian on the
Tigris and the Euphrates; Indian along the Indus (Moenjo-Daro) and the
Ganges; and Chinese expands from the region of the Wei and Hwang Ho
rivers.
All these civilizations luckily flourished in our part of the world that
is the East or the great continent of Asia. The rest of over a dozen
later civilizations are all indebted to the East. The book under review
by M. H. Panhwar deals with the great Indus civilization which,
according to 1924 discoveries, was at its height when Cheops in Egypt
was building his first pyramid. Providing evidence of highly developed
city life and bronze culture, according to the author of “Civilization
Past and Present”, T. Walter Wallbank and Alastair M. Taylor, “perhaps
Moenjo-Daro is the oldest civilization yet discovered. Whenever this
soil is thoroughly dug up as it has the soil of Egypt, it may uncover
civilizations (Indus and Ganges) much older than these which were
flourished along the Nile.”
The need for such a long introduction arose because the title of the
book is rather inappropriate. Though it gives a bird eye-view of the
history of the Soomra dynasty (1011-1351) is perhaps the shortest
history (rather glimpses) of the entire Indus civilization. Illahi
Bukhsh Soomro, admits in his forward, that “this book, as presented, is
much beyond the history of Soomras.”
One of the many reasons for giving sketchy coverage of the Soomras by
the writer is lack of material for which he has rightly blamed the
official attitude. Panhwar writes: “Pakistan government’s archaeologists
have long been looking for Islamic period, that means only the Arabs,
Delhi Sultans and Mughal monuments. To them … Soomra-Samma dynasties
are second rate Islamic era and therefore not even worth mentioning.
Brahminabad-Mansura city was the capital of Soomras when looted and
burned by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1025/26….evidence of large-scale massacres
of city has been established….” To prove his contention the learned
author has quoted Syed Suleman Nadvi’s lectures on Indo –Arab relations
delivered in Allahabad in March 1929, later published in a book form.
In over 250 pages, the author has encapsulated in 28 chapters, 70 maps,
21 charts and attractive illustrations covering 5000 years of colourful
history of not only the rulers, their friends and foes, victories and
defeats only.
In the introduction, Panhwar writes “my definition of history is that
it is the history of production, control over means of production,
distribution, irrigation system, climate and environments.” In short,
his emphasis is on economic, financial, social, cultural and religious
evolution in the Indus Valley spread over two-and a half millennium.
To justify the title, the author has given adequate coverage to the
Soomra Dynasty. Denying the claim made by several earlier historians
that the Soomars were, in fact, Sumerians, who came from Iraq
(Mesopotamia) and were of the Arab origin.
According to Panhwar, “the Soomras originally were a local Hindu tribe.
Some influential members of it had accepted Islam soon after the Arab
conquest of Sindh.”
During the Mughal rule, he further writes, “all local Muslims were
discriminated against and exploited like non-Muslims. Many Sindhi tribes
started showing their origin from outside. Soomras became Sumerians,
Sammas descendants of Jamshed of Persia and Kalhoras as offsprings of
Abbasid…”
Surprisingly, the writer is neither a historian, nor an anthropologist
or archaeologist. Basically he holds degrees in three allied fields of
mechanical electrical and agricultural engineering. For nearly 16 years
(1953-69), Panhwar had worked in different capacities in Sindh and
Baluchistan and enriched their soil by providing better farming methods
and improved irrigation system.
Simultaneously he wrote ten books on ground water, its occurrence,
development and conservation. He has established a horticulture research
farm near Hyderabad. There he has successfully produced 25 new fruit
crops, out of which 12 are commercially grown.
He and his wife are voracious readers and have unique collection of
nearly 25000 books, a majority of them on various aspects of Sindh. Of
his writings on Sindh, “Sources Material on Sindh” and “Chronological
Dictionary of Sindh” are referred as standard classic. The second
addition of his another book, “Six thousand years of irrigation in
Sindh, is in press.
The beautifully produced book is a chronology of events, dynastic lists,
including charts and a selection of maps is a valuable addition to a few
books on Sindhology. The author needs all the praise for the painful
and hard work.
CONTENTS
TEXT
* Foreword by Illahi Bukhsh Soomro P.11
* Preface by M. Umer Soomro P.13
Chapter 1 Introduction P.19
Chapter 2 Rulers of Soomra dynasty P.31
Chapter 3 Soomras as independent rulers of Sindh P.33
Chapter 4 Early Arab maps of Sindh (900-1000 AD) P.39
Chapter 5 Independent Islamic states and neighbouring
non-Muslim states (998 AD) before Soomras’ rise
to power P.45
Chapter 6 Did the empire of Mahmud of Ghazni include
Sindh? P.47
Chapter 7 Contemporaries of early Soomras in the Muslim World
and India (1011-1206 AD) P.57
Chapter 8 Sindh-Delhi Sultanate relations (1206-1333 AD) P.63
Chapter 9 Sindh-Multan relations P.67
Chapter 10 Mongol empire and Sindh(1221-1351 AD) P.71
Chapter 11 Brahui migration to Sindh and exodus of gypsies P.77
Chapter 12 Ibn Battutta’s visit to Sindh (1333 AD) P.81
Chapter 13 Invasion of Sindh by Muhammad Tughlaq P.87
Chapter 14 Historical geography of Sindh during Soomra
period P.91
Chapter 15 Behaviour of the Indus and its consequences
during Soomra rule P.113
Chapter 16 Irrigation and agriculture under Soomras P.121
Chapter 17 Administration P.133
Chapter 18 Human food during Soomra era P.139
Chapter 19 Trade under Soomras (1000-1400 AD) P.147
Chapter 20 Social life during Soomra period P.155
Chapter 21 Education under Soomras P.171
Chapter 22 Religion and mysticism during Soomra rule P.175
Chapter 23 Arts, crafts, archaeology and architectural
techniques P.201
Chapter 24 Languages of the South Asia P.215
Chapter 25 Development of Sindhi as official language during
Soomra rule P.221
Chapter 26 Language, literature and literary contacts with
outer world during Soomra rule P.225
Chapter 27 Science and technology P.233
Chapter 28 Human races of South Asia P.237
Bibliography P.238
Index P.242
Acknowledgments P.247
About the author P.248
MAPS
Map1 Location map of Sindh P.6
Map 2 1000-1525 AD: Soomra-Samma cities of northern Sindh P.20
Map 3 1000-1525 AD: Soomra-Samma cities of southern Sindh P.22
Map 4 854-1011 AD: Habari kingdom and adjoining local Arab
rulers in Balochistan and the southern Punjab in 951 AD P.24
Map 5 2500 BC-Present Times: Courses of Indus and Hakra
near Brahmanabad-Mansura P.26
Map 6 1025 AD: Khafif Soomra and contemporary South Asian
states P.30
Map 7 951 AD: Istakhri’s map of Sindh P.38
Map 8 976 AD: Ibn Haukal’s map of Sindh P.38
Map 9 Ibn Haukal’s map of the world P.38
Map 10 150 AD: Ptolemy’s map of South Asia P.40
Map 11 1154 AD: The world according to Idrisi P.42
Map 12 9th century: Beginning of the break-up of Abbasid
empire P.44
Map 13 10th century: Carmids, Karmatians, Buwahids and
Samanids P.44
Map 14 11th century: Ghaznavid empire P.44
Map 15 12th century: Seljuk’s invasions and Ghaznavids P.44
Map 16 1030 AD: Empire of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni P.46
Map 17 Mahmud of Ghazni’s route of sacking Mansura and the
early Muslim penetration in Sindh and adjoining areas P.48
Map 18 1206 AD: South Asia at the death of Shahabuddin Ghori P.56
Map 19 1150 AD: Sindh and adjoining areas according to Idrisi on
a modern map P.58
Map 20 1154 AD: Sindh and adjoining areas according to Idrisi P.58
Map 21 1236 AD: South Asia at the death of Altatmash P.62
Map 22 1220 AD: The Khawarizm Shah’s empire and dates of Mongol
raids P.62
Map 23 1287 AD: South Asia at the death of Balban P.64
Map 24 1315 AD: South Asia at the death of Allauddin P.66
Map 25 1227 AD: Chengiz Khan’s first Mongol empire P.70
Map 26 1239-1310 AD: Mongol empire and South Asia P.72
Map 27 3000 BC-1300 AD: Brahui migration to Sindh P.76
Map 28 13th-16th centuries: Principal sites of Chaukhandi
tombs in Sindh and Balochistan P.76
Map 29 1333 AD: Ibn Battutta’s route to Sindh and Multan P.80
Map 30 1894/95 AD: Nasirabad taluka and location of Junani P.82
Map 31 1335 AD: Empire of Muhammad bin Tughlaq P.84
Map 32 1351 AD: South Asia at the death of Muhammad Tughlaq P.86
Map 33 1351 AD: Taghi’s flight to Sindh and Muhammad Tughlaq’s
invasion P.88
Map 34 Soomra–Samma cities in ruins in southern Sindh P.90
Map 35 3000 BC Present Times: Course of River Indus near
Sukkur and four different gorges P.92
Map 36 Islands near Sukkur–Rohri P.92
Map 37 Sukkur and present environments P.92
Map 38 Cousen’s map of Brahmanabad-Mansura and surroundings
with identification by different authorities P.96
Map 39 Layout of Banbhore P.102
Map 40 2500 BC-Present:: The courses of Indus and Hakra
near Brahmanabad-Mansura based on aerial photographs P.102
Map 41 1226-1843 AD: Routes between Kutch and Sindh P.104
Map 42 962-993 AD: Seismic map of Pakistan P.110
Map 43 Warah, Jacobabad and Shahdadkot courses of the River Indus
in 8th - 14th centuries P.112
Map 44 Warah, Western Nara and Dadu courses of the River Indus
8th - 14th centuries P.112
Map 45 Khairpur course of the River Indus during 7th -14th
centuries P.112
Map 46 Khairpur, Sanghar, Samaro and Shahdadpur courses of the
River Indus in 7th-13th centuries P.112
Map 47 Nara, Samaro, Puran, Shahdadpur and Nasarpur courses
of the River Indus in 7th – 13th centuries P.114
Map 48 Bulri, Gungro, Golarchi and Ahmed Rajo courses of the
River Indus in lower Sindh in 10th – 14th centuries P.114
Map 49 Kalri, Baghar, Richhal and Ochto courses of the River Indus
in 10th-18th centuries P.114
Map 50 1250-1750 AD: Courses of the River Indus in southern
Sindh P.114
Map 51 1755-1758 AD: Changes in course of the River Indus P.116
Map 52 1250 AD and afterward: Frequent flood path on right bank
of the River Indus P.116
Map 53 Geomorphology of the soil in southern Sindh built by the
River Indus P.116
Map 54 Drying up of Hakra P.118
Map 55 Climatic map of Sindh, annual rainfall P.120
Map 56 Climatic map of Sindh, annual evaporation P.120
Map 57 Ground water map of Sindh P.122
Map 58 Probability of 5” rainfall in one day P.124
Map 59 Probability of 5” rainfall in five days P.124
Map 60 Probability of 5” rainfall in thirty days P.124
Map 61 Micro climatic zones of Sindh (heat and chill units) P.124
Map 62 Location of springs of Sindh P.126
Map 63 6000 BC – Present times: Migration of ducks, swans,
geese and fowls from Russia and Central Asia to
Manchar Lake based on ringing at and recovering P.138
Map 64 1025 AD: Trade routes, trade articles and trading
states P.146
Map 65 1228 AD: Trade routes and trading articles P.148
Map 66 8th – 13th centuries: Cultural, religious, commercial
and administrative centres in Sindh P.174
Map 67 Language distribution of the South Asia P.214
Map 68 1300-1650 AD: Tribal map of northern Sindh P.228
Map 69 1300-1650 AD: Tribal map of southern Sindh P.230
Map 70 Human races of the South Asia P.236
CHARTS AND TABLES
1 Various versions of origin of Soomras P.28
2 Kings of Soomra dynasty and years of their rule P.31
3 Geographical places shown in Arab maps and their
location P.43
4 Independent Muslim states in 998 AD P.45
5 Invasions of Mahmud Ghaznavi P.47
6 Muslim states contemporary of Soomras P.57
7 Contemporaries of Soomras (1011-1351/52 AD) P.60
8 Soomras and their contemporary rulers of Multan
(893-1365 AD) P.68
9 Chronology of important events relating to Mongol
conquests P.75
10 Soomra towns in southern Sindh in ruins P.94
11 Identification of Brahmandabad-Mansura and adjoining
places by various authors P.98
12 Geographical names of sea along Sindh coast P.103
13 Location of towns of Soomra period on various drainage
systems P.105
14 Genealogical table of Jareja Samma rulers of Kutch
(1148-1948 AD) P.108
15 Some springs in Sindh and cultivation on them P.131
16 Food items prices (1325-1351 AD) P.145
17 Prices of slaves in contemporary India P.169
18 Common religious centres of various communities in
Sindh since antiquity P.192
19 Glaze ores of Soomra period P.205
20 Low temperature glazes P.207
21 Basic glazes P.207
ILLUSTRATIONS
1 Level of progress in iron and glassware Fig: 1,2 P.29
2 Level of art in stone carving Fig: 3,4 P.30
3 Indus culture pottery and similarities with that of
Soomra era Fig: 5 to 7 P.32
4 Pottery from Indus culture cities (3700-1650 BC) and
parallels from Soomra era sites (1010-1351 AD)
Fig: 8 to 23 P.34
5 Clay pottery pieces found by Belasis and Cousens
from Brahmanabad-Mansura in 1854 excavations.
Subsequent pottery of Soomra (1011-1351) and Samma
(1351-1525) periods shows similar patterns and designs.
Fig: 24 to 38 P.36
6 (same) Fig: 39 to 49 P.37
7 Lids of Soomra period Fig: 50 to 57 P.41
8 Arab trader and soldiers Fig: 58,59 P.52
9 Mahmud Ghaznavi’s army Fig: 60,61 P.48
10 Clay jars mostly for storage of liquids Fig: 62 to 72 P.50
11 Clay jars, baking and cooking vessels and stands
Fig: 73 to 86 P.52
12 Tumblers, cups, stands and glazed and painted vases
Fig: 87 to 99 P.54
13 Pre-Delhi Sultanate period bird motifs on Soomra period
pottery Fig: 100 P.65
14 Allauddin’s sword Fig: 101 P.66
15 Gypsies of Sindh Fig: 102 P.69
16 End of Banbhore (Debal) Fig: 103 P.73
17 Mongol threat in Pakistan and northern India
Fig: 104 to 109 P.74
18 Mongols attacking an enemy Fig: 110 P.75
19 Chaukhandi type grave Fig: 111 P.76
20 Kings, conquerors and cavalrymen Fig: 112 to 117 P.78
21 Terracotta pottery mould Fig: 118 P.79
22 Junani inspection bungalow Fig: 119,120 P.82
23 Tughlaqs, their postal service and Ibn Battutta
Fig: 121 to 125 P.85
24 Types of construction during Soomra period
Fig: 126 to 128 P.89
25 Khawaja Khizr and Sadh Bella Fig: 129,130 P.92
26 Ivory objects, male and female figurines
Fig: 131 to 133 P.96
27 Types of construction Fig: 134 to 136 P.100
28 Decorative domestic articles of ivory, metal, stone,
palm leaves and straw Fig: 137 to 143 P.106
29 Mohenjo Daro housing compared to earlier and later
housing of Sindh Fig: 144 to 147 P.109
30 (same) Fig: 148 to 151 P.110
31 Houses of Soomra era still common in southern Sindh and
plans of Indus culture houses Fig: 152 to 156 P.111
32 Climatic optimum 900-1200 AD and climate of the past
1100 years Fig: 157 P.120
33 Agriculture operations of Soomra era continued in
twentieth century Fig: 158 to 166 P.128
34 Irrigation equipment Fig: 167 to 174 P.130
35 Irrigation Bokas Fig: 175,176 P.131
36 Visible plan of Soomra palace or administration building
at Shah Kapoor Fig: 177 P.132
37 Sketch of Khirun Kot and roads leading to Shah Kapoor and
Khirun Kot Fig: 178,179 P.134
38 Glazed pottery of Soomra period Fig: 180 to 204 P.136
39 Bhiro Bham ruins and painted pottery Fig: 205,206 P.137
40 Popular edible marine and fresh water fishes
Fig: 207 to 234 P.140
41 Popular edible fowls Fig: 235 to 256 P.142
42 Edible wild animals Fig: 257 to 272 P.144
43 Fishing and fowling Fig: 273,274 P.145
44 Coins and currency during Soomra era Fig: 275 to 282 P.150
45 Fishing, fishermen’s boat houses and fish trade
Fig: 283 to 292 P.152
46 Coins and currency continued from p.150 Fig: 293 to 295 P.153
47 Ornaments through the centuries to Soomra times
Fig: 296,297 P.154
48 Traditional ornaments worn by men and women during
Indus culture times and some continued during Soomra
rule and after (Jonathan Mark Kenoyer) Fig: 298 P.156
49 Indus civilisation patterns of tiles, ornaments, clothes
and interior decoration still used during Soomra era
Fig: 299 to 308 P.158
50 Female ornaments depicted in Chaukhandi type grave
art (14th-18th centuries) Fig: 309 to 317 P.160
51 Male and female ornaments and other ware of Soomra era
Fig: 318 to 323 P.162
52 Female ornaments depicted in grave art of 14th-18th
centuries Fig: 324 to 327 P.164
53 Neck ornaments of men and women from soomra sites
Fig: 328 to 337 P.166
54 Ornaments Fig: 338 to 345 P.168
55 Entertainment Fig: 346 to 348 P.169
56 Clothes, make-up tools and coloured ornaments
Fig: 349 to 357 P.170
57 Toys as children’s education and entertainment
Fig: 358 to 377 P.172
58 Religious postures, structures and objects
Fig: 378 to 382 P.176
59 Fig: 383 to 394 P.178
60 Fig: 395 to 399 P.180
61 Fig: 400 to 404 P.182
62 Fig: 405 to 409 P.184
63 Honouring the dead Fig: 410 to 422 P.186
64 Mosques surviving during Soomra period Fig: 423 to 426 P.188
65 Some important stupa’s designs of south and south-east
Asia Fig: 427 to 441 P.190
66 Snake worship Fig: 442 to 449 P.196
67 Music as expression of religion under Ismailism,
Sufism and Bhagti movements Fig: 450 to 461 P.198
68 (same) Fig: 462 to 469 P.199
69 Geometrical patterns for decoration on tiles and
ornaments during Soomra era Fig: 470 to 497 P.200
70 Artistic tiles and bricks of Soomra period
Fig: 498 to 502 P.202
71 Fig: 503 to 506 P.204
72 Fig: 507 to 513 P.206
73 Painted rosette pattern of Indus culture still in use
in rural Sindh Fig: 514 to 519 P.208
74 Smoking devices Fig: 520 to 532 P.210
75 Lighting Fig: 533 to 542 P.212
76 Rato Kot fort (10th-13th centuries) Fig: 543 to 550 P.213
77 Decorative ivory pieces and pieces of bangles
Fig: 551,552 P.214
78 Sindhi scripts in vogue in Soomra era Fig: 553 to 557 P.216
79 Sindhi and Arabic scripts of Soomra era Fig: 558 to 565 P.218
80 Eastern gate of Rato Kot and ruins of Alore
Fig: 566,567 P.219
81 Division of labour between man and woman in Sindhi
society during ages Fig: 568 to 572 P.220
82 Water carriers and crafts of Sindh Fig: 573 to 579 P.222
83 Bullock cart Fig: 580 P.223
84 Soomra ruined sites Fig: 581 to 588 P.224
85 Buddhist artistic tiles and bricks used in Kahujo Daro
and Sudheranjo Daro Fig: 589 to 615 P.226
86 Peacock and catapult terracotta balls Fig: 616,617 P.231
87 War and weaponry Fig: 618 to 633 P.232
88 Industrial tools Fig: 634 to 645 P.234
89 Artisans at work and their tools Fig: 646 to 650 P.235
90 Medical equipment Fig: 651 to 653 P.236
91 Flour grinding mills of medieaval Sindh Fig: 654 P.237
ABBREVIATIONS
BM Banbhore Museum, Banbhore
CDS Chronological Dictionary of Sindh
DGA Director General Archaeology
Dia Diameter
ELA Reader’s Digest “Every day Life through Ages.”
H Height
L Length
LM Lar Museum, Badin
M Maximum
MHP M.H. Panhwar, Author
NM National Museum, Karachi
OUP Oxford University Press
PEW Purnell’s Encyclopaedia of World History 1977
SM Sindh Museum, Hyderabad
SN Sindhology Museum, Jamshoro
T Thickness
TWH Times the World illustrated History
US Umer Soomro
W Width
Regards
Umer Soomro
Publisher
http://www.ismaili.net/heritage/node/10458
ISMAILI RULE IN SIND AND HIND
The Rise of the Sumra dynasty in Sind
"Ismailism remained a force in Sind and emerged stronger, for the Sumra tribe, who were the Ismailis, patronized it. Mehmud conquered Sind and annexed it to the Ghaznavid regime. It remained so during the time of his son, Masud (d. 432/1041), and latter's son Abdur Rashid (d. 444/1051). Henceforward, the Ghaznavid became weak in Sind. Delhi and its environs had been snatched from them by the rising power of the Ghorid, and Sind became an independent of them under the Sumra tribe.
The Sumra were the local Sindi Hindu tribe, converted to Islam in the time of the first Aarb conquest. They lived mostly on the banks of Indus, in the big cities of Janani and Sehwan. The Sumra embraced Ismailism by the da'is staying at Multan. In 445/1052, the Sumra came up as an influential power, and mustered strength at Thari, a sandy tract in the district of Thatta, where their chief had been proclaimed. They however came to power after defeating Abdur Rashid bin Masud bin Mehmud of Ghazna, and dominated the whole Sind soon afterward.
More on: http://www.ismaili.net/heritage/node/10458
ISMAILI RULE IN SIND AND HIND
The Rise of the Sumra dynasty in Sind
"Ismailism remained a force in Sind and emerged stronger, for the Sumra tribe, who were the Ismailis, patronized it. Mehmud conquered Sind and annexed it to the Ghaznavid regime. It remained so during the time of his son, Masud (d. 432/1041), and latter's son Abdur Rashid (d. 444/1051). Henceforward, the Ghaznavid became weak in Sind. Delhi and its environs had been snatched from them by the rising power of the Ghorid, and Sind became an independent of them under the Sumra tribe.
The Sumra were the local Sindi Hindu tribe, converted to Islam in the time of the first Aarb conquest. They lived mostly on the banks of Indus, in the big cities of Janani and Sehwan. The Sumra embraced Ismailism by the da'is staying at Multan. In 445/1052, the Sumra came up as an influential power, and mustered strength at Thari, a sandy tract in the district of Thatta, where their chief had been proclaimed. They however came to power after defeating Abdur Rashid bin Masud bin Mehmud of Ghazna, and dominated the whole Sind soon afterward.
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